Jane Addams: Chicago's Pacifist

Cosmopolitanism

Addams’ ideas of a “new internationalism” and “new cosmopolitanism” are central to her pacifism. In her work at Hull House, on Chicago’s near West Side, Addams encounters the everyday struggles of poor working-class people. Hull House Maps and Papers, a state-government funded survey of the area’s ethnic and racial diversity, identifies residents from a wide variety of backgrounds – English-speaking whites and African-Americans, as well as immigrants representing many nationalities – Irish, Greek, Syrian, German, Dutch, Russian, Turk, Pole, Italian, Swiss, French, French-Canadian, Arab, Chinese, and Scandinavian. Through Hull Houses’ varied settlement activities – classes in literacy, cooking and nutrition, and theater; the bakery and café enterprises; athletics and clubs; and day-care and job-training programs – Addams witnesses this diverse group of people working together, helping one another, bridging differences in cultures and languages, overcoming deep-seeded historical animosities, and establishing peaceful relations with one another through their growing interdependence and interconnectedness. She observes in her autobiography, Twenty Years at Hull-House: 

“If I may illustrate one of these romantic discoveries from my own experience, I would cite the indications of an internationalism as sturdy and virile as it is unprecedented which I have seen in our cosmopolitan neighborhood: when a South Italian Catholic is forced by the very exigencies of the situation to make friends with an Austrian Jew representing another nationality and another religion, both of which cut into all his most cherished prejudices, he finds it harder to utilize them a second time and gradually loses them. He thus modifies his provincialism, for if an old enemy working by his side has turned into a friend, almost anything may happen.” [1] 

People, she believes, can overcome their differences. Hull House influences her profound conviction that the things people have in common are far more numerous than those that separate them, “and that these basic likenesses, if they are properly accentuated, easily transcend the less essential differences of race, language, creed, and tradition.” [2]  Moreover, although some of Hull House’s cooperative enterprises failed miserably, Addams retains her conviction that people “pool[ing] their powers of production,” [3] offers a powerful alternative to individualism and competition, which, in turn, encourages a transformation in human consciousness: The Other is not a threatening stranger, but, rather, us. This change, she maintains, is essential to human progress and peaceful relations among people and countries. Institutions like Hull House are the mechanism that makes this transcendence possible. 

Utilizing Hull House’s engagement with its diverse neighbors, Addams creates a metaphor for a new type of international relations. She writes in Twenty Years at Hull-House: “When, therefore, I became identified with the peace movement both in its International and National Conventions, I hoped that this internationalism engendered in the immigrant quarters of American cities might be recognized as an effective instrument in the cause of [world] peace” [4]. Addams presents her original thoughts on the connection between achieving peace in Chicago’s 19th Ward and achieving world peace at a conference in Boston in 1904, titled “The New Internationalism.” [5] At the conference, Addams also addresses the tenacity of “old ideas” like prejudice and bigotry.  People who had lived near Hull House and had since moved to better neighborhoods – whom she refers to as “old settlers”– had been initially skeptical of Addams’ outreach. “Many of these pioneers,” Addams concedes, “were very much opposed to ‘foreigners,’ whom they held responsible for a depreciation of property and a general lowering of the tone of the neighborhood.”  One former resident of the neighborhood went so far as to chastise Addams for allowing the display of “‘foreign views’” on the walls of Hull House. Though attitudes like this persisted, Addams observes that, slowly, change happened. She recalls how this group of “older settlers” offer help for Hull House’s “various enterprises for neighborhood improvement.” These “older settlers” begin suggesting plans to alleviate the difficulties the neighborhood’s bursting new immigrant groups faced during their initial struggles with the conditions of life in America. Addams even claims that these old timers “have never since found such kindness” as they did in the 19^th Ward “as in early Chicago when all its citizens came together in mutual enterprises.” [6]  

Cosmopolitanism is a vital part of Addams’ view of the world and her pacifism. It led her to advocate for a global community amongst nations and ask people to divert their historic aggressions and animosities in favor of greater dialogue and new, mutually beneficial opportunities.

Feminism

Feminism is another key principle of Addams’ understanding of pacifism. Addams has an evolutionary understanding of gender. She equates men going out to hunt (in a “tribal stage” of human development) with a military-like group of warriors. Meanwhile, women stay back and tended to the domestic well-being of the group and the care of children. In an address titled “New Ideals of Peace,” Addams explains that “in this early life women performed as positive a service as men did, but owing to a difference in kind, women were trained in patience and endurance, men in heroic and sudden action.” [7] As a result of her understanding of gender roles, Addams finds women to be more nurturing than men due to evolution. Addams believes that this nurturing characteristic of women can bring peace to the world because women, supposedly, would not wish to see their children die in combat. She suggests that, when one considers the possibility of sending their child to death in war, the prospect of war becomes less enticing. Addams even argues that a more active role for women in policy making will offer an alternative to militarism in domestic and foreign affairs because of a woman’s inherently caring nature. 

Anti-Militarism

The final aspect of Addams’ pacifism revolves around her disdain for militarism, which, she believes, disrupts society and makes peace difficult to achieve. In her argument against war, Addams claims that “there is one inevitable result [of war] – an increased standing army, the soldiers of which are non-producers and must be fed by the workers… The men in these armies spend their muscular force in drilling, their mental force in thoughts of warfare. The mere hours of idleness conduce mental and moral deterioration.” [8] Addams suggests the diversion of resources from social programs to a standing army damages the economy, and that militarism weakens society’s intellect and drive for activities beyond war and labor. She reiterates this narrative at a Workingmen’s Public Meeting in Faneuil Hall, Boston, where she proclaims that “the peace movement should be in the hands of those who produce, and not be allowed to fall into the hands of those who destroy.” [9] According to Addams, pacifism should void of militaristic codes and practices. 

Addams contends that corrupt police and politicians contribute to a cycle of militarism. In Newer Ideals of Peace, Addams asserts that “it is not remarkable… that the police department, the most vigorous survival of militarism to be found in American cities, has always been responsible for the most exaggerated types of civic corruption.” [10] According to Addams, police maintain the military status quo. The police’s strict authority in society is subject to corruption that thereby perpetuates a loop of militaristic ideals which repress society. However, civic corruption does not stop at the police, as Addams points out, “there is almost inevitably developed a politician of the corrupt type so familiar in American cities, the politician who has become successful because he has made friends with the vicious.” [11]. A lawless and corrupt government can emerge from a system where criminals, or the “vicious,” manipulate politics through corrupt politicians. This, Addams believes, is detrimental to peace because politicians and police will manipulate society to their own will instead of for the benefit of the citizens. Addams’ disdain towards militarism revolves around her belief that it perpetuates a warfare mentality – even in times of peace, thereby disrupting the potential for lasting peace at home and abroad.

Addams’ Pacifism in Action

In the early twentieth century, the outbreak of World War I puts Addams’ pacifism to the test. Addams is steadfast in her determination to achieve a quick end to the war and prevent America’s entry into the war. As the war drags on, people begin having concerns regarding war preparedness. Addams advocates against preparedness policies, arguing that it instills military codes within society and socializes people into a war-like lifestyle – and thus serves to rationalize war as normal. To combat the rising popularity of such policies, Addams targets both the executive and legislative branches of the US government.  In her October 1915 letter to President Woodrow Wilson, Addams highlights her concerns about preparedness. She believes it is an unnecessary policy because it cultivates “hypothetical dangers” and “would create rivalry, suspicion, and taxation in every country… to establish a ‘citizen soldiery.’” [12] According to her pacifism, preparedness policies would lead to tense relations throughout the world rather than global peace because countries would see America’s preparations for war as a threat – and thus compel them to engage in behaviors that the U.S. likewise would see as a threat. Addams conveys this in the same letter to President Wilson when she says, “to increase our fighting equipment would inevitably make all other nations fear instead of trust us.” In January of 1916, Addams gives testimony before the House of Representative’s Committee on Military Affairs, where she argues that increases in military spending and other preparedness measures threaten an arms race and make the U.S. a threat and thus a target of another country’s aggression. She maintains that preparedness will burden the U.S. economy with unnecessary spending on armaments. Addams provides the Congressmen with an alternative theory to militarism: cosmopolitanism. She discusses the potential for a cosmopolitan society where immigrants are peaceful to each other despite current events and disputes between their native nations. She points to the neighborhood surrounding Hull House, where Greeks, Bulgarians, and other Balkan nationalities live side-by-side peacefully despite both Balkan wars. Following her arguments against militarism and in favor of cosmopolitanism, Addams considers the emotional composure of men versus women and proclaims, “It seems to me that perhaps men are somewhat emotional.” [13] Women ought to influence foreign policy because, when men become embroiled in the emotions of war and defending their country, they cannot properly protect humanity. However, she does not explicitly say she is against war in an absolute sense. Addams explains the conditions that make war acceptable – strict self-defense in the face of imminent aggression. When pressed by a committee member about the circumstances when it would be appropriate for the United States to go to war, Addams refuses to speculate and says that the time has yet to arrive. She maintains, instead, that the United States can avoid war altogether if it avoids preparations for war, and that the world can rid itself of war much like it can rid itself of diseases. 

Other Pacifists’ Beliefs

There is a spectrum of beliefs within any social construct. The same holds true for pacifism, which ranges from absolutist to highly conditional. To grasp a deeper understanding of Addams’ pacifism, one must consider how it compares to the pacifist ideas of her contemporaries.

Leo Tolstoy was an important figure during the late 19th century and early 20th century was. He influenced Addams’ own thinking about pacifism and her notion of helping those in need. Tolstoy is known for his colonies where elites lived and worked alongside peasants. When Addams visited Tolstoy in Russia in 1896, this hands-on approach to social relations further inspired her desire to help those in need and pursue pacificism. Tolstoy believed the phrase, “Resist not evil,” conveyed a basic message that prohibited any true follower of Christianity from using force. Rather than show resistance, Tolstoy found that the gospel taught readers to do good to their oppressors despite the violence inflicted upon them. He understood that living this way would not promise happiness in life; however, living by it would instead limit the cycle of violence within the world. Tolstoy professed that the Church often preached contrary to the foundations of the Christian truth. He believed that one ought to learn Christian teachings by themselves to create a personal bond with Jesus rather than follow the prescribed route proposed by the Church. Similarly, when approaching pacifism from Tolstoy’s perspective, one ought to live using a belief and practice of non-resistance to cultivate an individualistic approach to promote peace and understand religion. However, Addams’ pacifism does not exactly align with Tolstoy’s. Whereas she embraced a communal approach to nonviolence, Tolstoy emphasized an absolute, individualist version of non-resistance.

John Dewey, a University of Chicago professor and friend of Addams, made a different case for pacifism. After the outbreak of World War I, the peace movement was experienced a dilemma that would ultimately splinter Pacifists across the spectrum had to decide whether to support or oppose the United States’ entering the war. Dewey was a pragmatist, and he rationalized his support for the war by claiming that it “opened up the possibility of employing collective knowledge on an international scale, bringing to foreign… affairs the service of the scientific expert in the cause of peace and justice.” [14] Dewey separated force and violence from their absolute connection, contrary to the thoughts of Addams and Tolstoy. Instead, Dewey believed that violence is a wasteful form of force that needed to be controlled by law to efficiently employ the energies behind force. Splitting from Addams, Dewey came out in support of the war, viewing it as a way to ensure the United States would be better able to control the forces within international affairs to mold its vision of peace.

In contrast to Dewey, William James remained firm in his beliefs against going to war. Unlike Addams, however, James believed that militarism held significance and importance in society because, he maintained, it built “individual character, including ‘order and discipline… service and devotion’ which promote the collective good over individual desires.” [15] While Addams perceived militarism as a vice and the source of corruption within domestic affairs, James noted that history romanticized war and militarism and grounded them as ideals of humanity, thus making people willing to overlook the horrors of war and instead marvel at its possible rewards. When considering the potential for war, James, much like Addams, saw that “in modern eyes, precious though wars may be, they must not be waged solely for the sake of the ideal harvest. Only when forced upon one, is a war now thought permissible.” [16]  Despite his disdain for war itself, James understood “militarism is the great preserver of our ideals of hardihood, and human life with no use for hardihood would be contemptible” [17]  Militarism was ingrained into society and its ideals, and this lead to pacifists like James stressing an alternative to war that upheld the values of militarism. Without such an alternative, pacifists would be unable to persuade any pro-war advocates of turning towards pacifism. Although James and Addams both viewed war as something society should not pursue, James emphasized the need for an abstract replica of war to mimic militarism and its roles within society.

Conclusion

With Addams’ three principles in mind, one can determine how her pacifism manifests itself within the pacifist spectrum. Cosmopolitanism relies on communication between peoples and nations to establish a common international spirit of community, which is necessary for lasting peace. Additionally, Addams takes a constructivist approach to international relations with her insistence on a feminist identity that emphasizes the nurturing role of women as promoters of peace and the protectors of the lives of children and humanity in general. In her third principle, Addams strays away from the importance of progressing national power as promoted by realists. Instead, Addams values a system without the influence of militarism, because she believes militarism is detrimental to the progress of intellect and economics and thus peace. With militarism comes corruption and lawlessness, and both allow individuals to manipulate society for the quest for power and narrow self-interest over the promotion of a common peace. For Addams, war – and indeed preparations for war – is only acceptable when a state faces an imminent threat, when it must defend itself from foreign invasion on its own territory, or after it has taken all the necessary steps to avoid war. If all states abide by this testament, war would cease to exist. The dilemma, however, is when one country does not abide by this strict conditionality, resulting in a predicament where a state may potentially compromise successfully fending off foreign invasion by the time it exhausted all options. Therefore, aggression is encouraged as a defensive strategy. Indeed, as international tensions increased in the late 1920s and early 1930s – with Germany, Italy, Japan pursuing belligerent foreign policies – Addams seems disheartened by a renewed conflict, arguing that lasting peace ultimately requires a change in human consciousness on the part of people the world over.

Notes:

1. Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House (New York: Macmillan, 1910), 203.
2. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, 73.
3. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, 89.
4. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, 203.
5. For a detailed explanation of her thinking on this topic, see the essay of the same title, on the Jane Addams: Chicago’s Pacifist site, at the following location: http://digitalchicagohistory.org/exhibits/show/jane-addams/the-new-internationalism.
6. Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, 71.
7. Jane Addams, et al. Jane Addams Essays and Speeches on Peace. Thoemmes Continuum, 2005, 39.
8. Jane Addams, et al. Jane Addams Essays and Speeches on Peace. Thoemmes Continuum, 2005, 2.
9. Addams, et al. Jane Addams Essays and Speeches on Peace, 35.
10. Jane Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 55.
11. Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace, 56.
12. Jane Addams, “Women's Peace Party.” Received by Woodrow Wilson, 29 Oct. 1915.
13. “Statement of Miss Jane Addams.” To Increase the Efficiency of the Military Establishment of the United States. Hearing Before the House Committee on Military Affairs, Sixty-Fourth Congress, First Session on the Bill to Increase the Efficiency of the Military Establishment of the United States, 13 Jan 1916. Washington Government Publishing Office 1917, 3-15. Google Play Books. Web. 14 June 2017.
14. John Patrick Diggins, “John Dewey in Peace and War.” The American Scholar, vol. 50, no. 2, 1981, 214. 
15. Terry Beitzel, “Virtue in the Nonviolence of William James and Gandhi,” International Journal on World Peace, vol. 30, no. 3, 2013, 58.
16. William James, “The Moral Equivalent of War.” University of Kentucky. 3 August 2018, 1.
17. James, “The Moral Equivalent of War,” 3.